Alexander the Great

Early life and rise to power: Alexander was born in 356 BCE to King Philip II of Macedon and Queen Olympias in Pella; his education included the philosopher Aristotle as tutor, who taught him literature, philosophy and science and strongly influenced his appreciation for Greek culture. As a youth Alexander saw military action (he commanded a cavalry force at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE) and was exposed to Philip’s state-building and military reforms that transformed Macedon into the dominant power in mainland Greece. Succession and consolidation (336–334 BCE): Philip II was assassinated in 336 BCE and the 20-year-old Alexander succeeded him as king; he quickly secured his position by suppressing revolts (notably razing Thebes) and ensuring Macedonian control over Greece before launching his campaign against Persia. With Greece pacified he crossed into Asia in 334 BCE, beginning the decade-long campaign that would topple the Achaemenid Empire. Persian campaign and empire-building (334–330 BCE): Alexander won a series of decisive battles against the Persians — Granicus (334 BCE), Issus (333 BCE) and Gaugamela (331 BCE) — after which Darius III’s power collapsed and Alexander took control of Persian administrative centers including Babylon, Susa and Persepolis. He adopted some Persian court practices, encouraged marriages between Macedonians and local women, and founded many cities (most named Alexandria) to secure control and spread Greek culture across newly conquered territories. Later campaigns, administration and death (330–323 BCE): After the fall of the central Persian state Alexander pursued remaining Persian satraps and led forces through Central Asia into Bactria and Sogdiana, then pushed into the northwest Indian subcontinent before his army, exhausted, forced a return to Babylon. His later years saw increasing autocratic behaviour, the incorporation of Persian elements into his court, and tensions with Macedonian officers. He died in Babylon in 323 BCE under debated circumstances (fever, possibly malaria, typhoid, or poisoning remain hypotheses), leaving no clear adult heir and precipitating the fragmentation of his empire among his generals (the Diadochi).